Selasa, 21 Desember 2010

Komponen Pengkajian Keperawatan

Komponen Pengkajian Keperawatan meliputi :
1.Pengumpulan Data
Kriteria :
a.Menggunakan format yang baku.
b.Sistematis.
c.Diisi sesuai dengan item yang tersedia.
d.Aktual.
e.Absah.

2.Pengelompokan Data
Kriteria :
-Data biologis
-Data Psikologis
-Data sosial
-Data spiritual

3.Perumusan Masalah
Kriteria :
-Kesenjangan antara status kesehatan dengan norma dan pola fungsi kehidupan.
-Perumusan masalah ditunjang oleh data yang telah dikumpulkan.

Contoh :
Memenuhi kebutuhan Oksigen, kriteria :
1.Menyiapkan alat sesuai dengan jenis tindakan dan umur pasien.
2.Mengatur posisi pasien.
3.Memberikan obat/oksigen dengan prinsip 5 tepat dan w (tepat pasien, tepat obat, tepat dosis, tepat cara pemberiab, tepat waktu dan waspada terhadap efek samping).

Tim Departemen Kesehatan RI. 1997. Standar Asuhan Keperawatan. Jakarta : S. Agung Setia

PINDANG OTAK-OTAK

Bahan :
-          8 buah otak-otak, iris serong 2 cm, goreng
-          150 g daging nanas, potong-potong
-          4 btr bawang merah, iris tipis
-          5 bh cabai rawit merah, iris tipis.
-          1 btg daun bawang, iris 1 cm.
-          1 btg serai, ambil bagian putihnya.
-          1 lbr daun salam
-          2 cm lengkuas, memarkan
-          ½ sdm gula
-          Garam dan merica secukupnya
-          4 sdm kecap manis
-          2 sdm minyak goreng
-          1 bungkus penyedap masakan

Cara Membuat
-          Tumis bawang merah, serai, daun salam, dan lengkuas.
-          Masukkan otak-otak goreng, nanas, kecap, gula, dan penyedap masakan.
-          Tambahkan 800 ml air, cabai rawit, daun bawang serta garam dan merica. Masak hingga bumbu meresap. Sajikan.

Untuk 4-5 orang

Jumat, 17 Desember 2010

Telinga

TELINGA YANG LUAR

 Pinna

 - Struktur- yang kelihatan bagian dari telinga yang
 berada di luar kepala.
 - berfungsi- tujuan yang utama
 pinna adalah untuk mengumpulkan bunyi;serasi

[Itu] mengerjakan sangat dengan bertindak sebagai suatu corong, memperbesar pengarahan dan bunyi;serasi [itu] [itu] kepada saluran telinga.

 [Selagi/Sedang] melintas pinna [itu], bunyi;serasi juga [berhasil/ melewati] suatu menyaring proses di mana bunyi frekwensi mencakup [di mana/jika] pidato/suara manusia secara normal ditemukan ditingkatkan.

 Akhirnya, menyaring proses juga menambahkan informasi directional kepada bunyi;serasi.

Saluran Tentang indera pendengar

 - Struktur–
 Saluran adalah 3.5 cm merindukan dan . 7 cm lebar/luas. 
 Bagian dari tabung terdekat ke pinna adalah penuh dengan syaraf [yang] berakhir dan mempunyai sejumlah kulit sensitip lembut.
 Kulit tua didorong ke luar ketika tumbuh kulit baru, [yang] secara alami membersihkan saluran telinga [itu].

lebih lanjut , Saluran berisi rambut kecil yang menyaring bekas peninggalan.

 Garis pertahanan yang akhir yang melindungi telinga [itu] adalah suatu kelompok serabut lilin [memanggil/hubungi] cerumen pantai.


 - berfungsi–
 Saluran yang tentang indera pendengar mempunyai dua fungsi utama: [itu] menyediakan suatu jalan terusan untuk bunyi;serasi yang bepergian dari pinna kepada gendang telinga, dan [itu] melindungi telinga [itu] dari infeksi/peradangan.

 Satu-Satunya hal yang bisa dengan sukses menerobos saluran yang tentang indera pendengar adalah bunyi;serasi [dirinya] sendiri, yang kemudian melanjut kepada gendang telinga.


 Gendang telinga
 - Struktur–
 Pada sekitar 1 cm di (dalam) garis tengah, gendang telinga terdiri dari tiga lapisan dari  material yang berbeda .

 Lapisan terdekat ke saluran yang tentang indera pendengar adalah terdiri atas kulit; lapisan yang berikutnya [menjadi/dari] suatu material elasic dan berserat; lapisan yang akhir adalah suatu ingus yang memproduksi lapisan.

Anulus, suatu fibrocartilaginous ( yang dibuat dari suatu jenis khusus tulang rawan) [cincin/arena], [memegang/menjaga] gendang telinga [itu] pada tempatnya.
 Gendang telinga adalah tembus cahaya dan sangat tipis.

- berfungsi

 Gendang telinga bergetar ketika yang dilibatkan oleh gelombang suara yang sudah menempuh perjalanan melalui/sampai saluran yang tentang indera pendengar, dan kemudian memindahkan getaran ini kepada telinga bagian dalam.

TELINGA BAGIAN DALAM.
 Ossicles
 - struktur–
 Ossicles adalah tiga tulang kecil ( yang paling kecil tubuh) yang [disebut/dipanggil] malleus, incus, dan stapes, atau secara berurutan palu, besi landasan, dan pijakan kaki dalam kaitan dengan bentuk mereka.

-       berfungsi- Tulang ini memindahkan getaran gendang telinga kepada labirin

Malleus ( Palu)
 - Struktur- Malleus terikat kasih sayang dengan gendang telinga.
 - berfungsi-   tulang yang pertama di (dalam) rantai untuk memindahkan getaran dari gendang telinga kepada labirin.

Incus ( Besi landasan)
 - Struktur- tulang yang kedua  di (dalam) rantai untuk memindahkan getaran dari gendang telinga kepada labirin.
 - berfungsi- Incus memindahkan getaran malleus kepada stapes

Stapes ( Pijakan kaki)
 - Struktur- [Itu] adalah tulang yang akhir di (dalam) rantai untuk memindahkan getaran dari gendang telinga kepada labirin.
 - berfungsi- Stapes memindahkan getaran incus kepada jendela yang bujur telur, sebagian dari labirin [bagi/kepada] yang (mana)  [itu] dihubungkan.

Tabung Eustachian
  - Struktur–
 Tabung adalah sekitar 3.6 cm [panjang/lama], terdiri dari tulang rawan dan tulang, dan melapisi dengan cilia, atau rambut [yang] sangat kecil.

 [Itu] dihubungkan kepada rongga telinga bagian dalam, dan pada dasar/nya keluar ke nasopharynx ( yang ditempatkan; terletak di [dalam]  punggung mulut).
berfungsi–
 Tabung eustachian melayani dua tujuan: [itu] biarkan saluran cairan sepanjang kerongkongan, dan [itu] menyamakan tekanan sebelah menyebelah gendang telinga. 

 Jika cairan kelebihan membangun telinga bagian dalam, [itu] mengalirkan sepanjang tabung eustachian ke dalam kerongkongan.

Dalam rangka menyamakan tekanan [itu] di [dalam]  telinga bagian dalam dengan tekanan udara (di) luar, tabung eustachian terbuka bagi mengijinkan udara untuk mengalir atau ke luar dari tabung tentang tiap-tiap tiga kali kita me/telan, mengunyah, atau menguap


Vestibular Sistem


 Tiga Saluran pipa Berbentuk setengah lingkaran
 Utricle
 Saccule

Jendela Bujur telur
 - Struktur - Jendela yang bujur telur adalah selaput
 di [dalam]  dinding pembuluh dalam telinga.
 - berfungsi- [Itu] menerima getaran dari
 stapes di (dalam) telinga bagian dalam, dan
 memindahkan getaran [itu] kepada
 cairan pembuluh dalam telinga.

Saluran Berbentuk setengah lingkaran
 - Struktur- Mereka berisi cairan dan
 sel rambut yang khusus.
 - berfungsi- Bantuan Saluran yang berbentuk setengah lingkaran
 memelihara saldo/timbangan, tetapi mempunyai
 tidak (ada) fungsi di (dalam) tentang indera pendengar
 persepsi. 
 Ketika cairan pindah;gerakkan, sel rambut mengirimkan suatu pesan kepada otak [bahwa/yang] kepala telah meng/berubah posisi.

Pembuluh dalam telinga
 - Struktur- Dalam bentuk alami nya ,
 pembuluh dalam telinga digulung, tetapi ketika
 [itu] mengukur 3.5 cm.

 Di dalam pembuluh dalam telinga adalah basilar selaput, atas mana membentuk gelombang tegak disebabkan oleh getaran cairan di dalam pembuluh dalam telinga.


 Pembuluh dalam telinga.

 berfungsi–

 Orang bertobat Pembuluh dalam telinga phisik getaran ke dalam dorongan/gerakan hati elektrik. 

 Gantung pada frekwensi getaran, puncak gelombang tegak akan terjadi pada poin-poin berbeda sepanjang selaput.

Nurunkan puncak hasil frekwensi dekat ujung selaput jauh dari jendela yang bujur telur, [selagi/sedang] frekwensi lebih tinggi menghasilkan puncak dekat ujung selaput yang semakin dekat kepada jendela.

 (Di) atas dua juta rambut kecil [memanggil/hubungi] stereocilia mengambil [itu] bergeraknya basilar selaput dan cochlear cairan dan kemudian mengkonversi isyarat [itu] ke dalam dorongan/gerakan hati elektrik.

-       struktur- Syaraf yang tentang indera pendengar adalah suatu jalan kecil yang mengijinkan neurel isyarat [itu] yang diproduksi oleh stereocilia di (dalam) pembuluh dalam telinga untuk bepergian kepada otak.


- berfungsi- 
 Syaraf yang tentang indera pendengar adalah suatu jalan kecil
 itu mengijinkan neurel isyarat [itu]
 yang diproduksi oleh stereocilia di (dalam)
 pembuluh dalam telinga untuk bepergian kepada otak [itu]. Sekali ketika
 di (dalam) otak isyarat dari kedua-duanya
 telinga dikombinasikan, diproses, dan
 yang ditafsirkan untuk menghasilkan sensasi [itu] yang kita
 panggilan mendengar.

Labirin berada di dalam suatu [ruang;spasi] [memanggil/hubungi] labirin yang bertulang.

Jendela yang bujur telur membentuk suatu potensi yang membuka dari telinga bagian dalam ke dalam labirin yang bertulang.
 Stapes telinga bagian dalam mengisi pembukaan ini; tetapi...
 Stapes dengan fleksibel dipasang dan dapat bergetar untuk memancarkan ombak tekanan kepada cairan yang mengisi labirin yang bertulang. ( Bunyi;Serasi dibawa dari gendang telinga ke seberang telinga bagian dalam oleh ke tiga telinga pertengahan ossicles, berakhir dengan stapes di jendela yang bujur telur.)

yang dipenjarakan Di dalam labirin yang bertulang, dan memperkirakan bentuk nya, adalah suatu saling behubungan satuan jalan terusan dan kamar membrane-lined [memanggil/hubungi] labirin yang seperti selaput.

 Di (dalam) diagram, jeruk warna menduduki [ruang;spasi] labirin yang bertulang, [selagi/sedang] labirin yang seperti selaput adalah biru.

Labirin Nama menyarankan bentuk yang kompleks [dari;ttg] jalan terusan dan kamar ini.

 Ruang depan adalah ( secara logika cukup) " masukan tinggal" ke dalam jalan terusan yang lebih dalam.
 Ruang depan labirin yang bertulang berisi saccule [itu] dan utricle labirin yang seperti selaput;

 Tiga saluran berbentuk setengah lingkaran meliputi pengulangan/jerat tubules cuti yang (mana)  dan kembali ke ruang depan [itu].
 Di dalam masing-masing saluran [yang] berbentuk setengah lingkaran labirin yang bertulang adalah suatu saluran [yang] berbentuk setengah lingkaran labirin yang seperti selaput.

Pembuluh dalam telinga adalah shaped seperti suatu snail-shell yang berpilin [men]jauh dari ruang depan.
 Terowongan [yang] bergulung tunggal labirin yang bertulang dibagi lagi ke dalam tiga tingkatan (" scalae") dengan selaput labirin yang seperti selaput.
 Bagian labirin yang seperti selaput di dalam pembuluh dalam telinga [disebut/dipanggil] media organisasi [itu]. 
 Di dalam labirin yang seperti selaput adalah suatu cairan unik [memanggil/hubungi] endolymph. 
 Melingkupi labirin yang seperti selaput ( yaitu., mengisi [ruang;spasi] yang sisa[nya] labirin yang bertulang) adalah suatu cairan [memanggil/hubungi] perilymph.

Sel Rambut, mechanoreceptor sel yang khusus yang tentang indera pendengar dan vestibular sistem, ditemukan beberapa posisi sepanjang kamar dan jalan terusan labirin yang seperti selaput

Sel Rambut pada dasarnya columnar epithelial sel.

 Di akhir yang apikal dari tiap sel rambut adalah satu set " rambut" ( proyeksi cytoplasmic, kinocilium dan stereocilia) yang ditempelkan suatu massa extracellular selai.

 Di akhir yang fundamental dari tiap sel rambut adalah synapses ke berhubungan dengan perasaan axons

Sehelai rambut Sel menjawab ketika bergeraknya extracellular selai memindahkan kinocilium nya dan stereocilia. 

 Penggantian/Jarak adalah excitatory di (dalam) satu arah ( ke arah kinocilium) dan bersifat mencegah arah kebalikan.
Penggantian/Jarak kinocilium dan stereocilia mengubah konduktans ion menggali, pada gilirannya mempengaruhi pelepasan/release neurotransmitter ke axon berhubungan dengan perasaan yang dihubungkan.  ( Ini axons merancang sepanjang yang tentang indera pendengar dan vestibular kegelisahan, syaraf berkenaan dengan tengkorak VIII).
 Fungsi Sel Rambut di dalam suatu lingkungan cairan, endolymph, dengan suatu komposisi bersifat ion unik.

 Proses [dari;ttg] transduction berhubungan dengan perasaan di (dalam) sel rambut ( yaitu., konversi dari suatu stimulus eksternal, dalam hal ini pergerakan kecil, ke dalam neural aktivitas) telah secara intensif menyelidiki
Disposisi yang mekanis selai dalam hubungan dengan [ruang;spasi] labirin yang seperti selaput menentukan bagaimana sel rambut menjawab.
 Sel Rambut di (dalam) saluran yang berbentuk setengah lingkaran bereaksi terhadap percepatan sudut ( perputaran).
 Sel Rambut di (dalam) otolith organ/ bagian badan bereaksi terhadap pemercepat lurus.
 Sel Rambut di [dalam]  organ/ bagian badan Corti pembuluh dalam telinga bereaksi terhadap bunyi;serasi.
 Saccule Dan Utricle berisi tambalan sel rambut [memanggil/hubungi] maculae
 Suatu massa selai [yang] kecil beristirahat di atas sekali sel rambut bintik.
 Di (dalam) selai ini adalah banyak perwujudan mineral kecil, [disebut/dipanggil] otoliths.
 Sel Rambut bintik dibelokkan oleh berat/beban atau kelesuan [itu] otoliths. Bersama-Sama dua penghembus otolith organ/ bagian badan ( salah satu dari masing-masing pada setiap telinga) dapat merasakan orientasi kepala ( gaya berat) atau pemercepat lurus di (dalam) manapun arah.
Masing-Masing saluran [yang] berbentuk setengah lingkaran labirin yang bertulang adalah suatu jalan terusan cekungan yang pengulangan/jerat di luar dan kembali kepada ruang depan.  Di dalam masing-masing [dari;ttg] jalan terusan ini adalah suatu saluran [yang] berbentuk setengah lingkaran labirin yang seperti selaput. 
 Sependapat akhir dari tiap saluran berbentuk setengah lingkaran seperti selaput adalah suatu pelebaran kecil [memanggil/hubungi] ampulla [itu].

 Di dalam masing-masing ampulla adalah suatu punggung bukit/bubungan atau " jambul" [disebut/dipanggil] crista [itu].
 Crista mempunyai sejumlah sel rambut.

 Suatu massa selai kecil, [memanggil/hubungi] kubah [itu] (" kopiah") beristirahatlah di atas sekali sel rambut crista.
 Sel Rambut ampullae bereaksi terhadap percepatan sudut ( yaitu., perputaran kepala).
 Ada tiga saluran berbentuk setengah lingkaran pada setiap telinga, yang diorientasikan tiga mutually-perpendicular wahana. 
 Perputaran kepala di (dalam) manapun arah akan menyebabkan inertial pergerakan cairan di (dalam) satu atau lebih saluran yang berbentuk setengah lingkaran
Cairan memberi isyarat masuk kepada suatu saluran berbentuk setengah lingkaran mendorong [itu] kubah seperti suatu terayun pintu. 
 Bergeraknya kubah pada gilirannya membelokkan proyeksi sel rambut.
 Wahana orientasi semicircircular saluran sesuai dengan wahana tindakan extraocular otot, membiarkan refleks sederhana untuk mengkoordinir pergerakan mata dengan perputaran kepala.
 Pembuluh dalam telinga memondokkan suatu bentuk wujud [yang] rumit [dari;ttg] sel rambut dan labirin seperti selaput, [memanggil/hubungi] organ/ bagian badan Corti, merancang untuk resepsi tentang indera pendengar.

 Bentuk dasar  pembuluh dalam telinga adalah sebagai suatu snail-shell, atau meruncingkam garis sekerup/spiral selenoid.

 Pembuluh dalam telinga Manusia adalah lebar dan pendek/singkat; micrographs pada website ini ( dan di (dalam) banyak orang lain acuan) menunjukkan pembuluh dalam telinga suatu binatang pengerat laboratorium [yang] yang mana [adalah] dengan sebanding;seimbang lebih dangkal dan lebih tinggi.


Pilin terowongan ( biru, gambaran pada [hak/ kebenaran]) itu membentuk pembuluh dalam telinga labirin yang bertulang adalah dibagi menjadi tiga saluran beda [oleh/dengan] bagian labirin yang seperti selaput berkait dengan punggung bukit/bubungan bertulang. 
 Masing-Masing saluran ini [disebut/dipanggil] a " organisasi", maksud/arti " lereng" atau " menundukkan" Organisasi [itu] Vestibuli menaik dari ruang depan kepada ujung pembuluh dalam telinga.
 Organisasi [itu] Vestibuli berisi perilymph.
 Genderang Organisasi turun dari ujung pembuluh dalam telinga kepada jendela putaran.  ( Ada suatu elastis energy-dissipating selaput yang mencakup jendela putaran [itu] ( karenanya genderang di (dalam) nama).
 Genderang Organisasi, [seperti;suka] organisasi [itu] vestibuli, berisi perilymph. 
 Di ujung pembuluh dalam telinga, organisasi [itu] vestibula dan genderang organisasi dihubungkan melalui/sampai helicotrema.\

Media Organisasi, juga disebut cochlear saluran pipa [itu], berada sepanjang panjang pembuluh dalam telinga pilinan, di (dalam) a " di tengah-tengah" memposisikan antar[a] organisasi [itu] vestibuli dan genderang organisasi. 

 Media Organisasi berisi endolymph.
 Organ/ bagian badan Corti Kepalsuan di dalam media organisasi.
 Media Organisasi terpisah dari organisasi [itu] vestibuli oleh yang sangat tipis Selaput Reissner's. 
 Media Organisasi dan genderang organisasi dipisahkan oleh basilar selaput.

 Kolom yang pusat ( modiolus) tentang pembuluh dalam telinga yang seperti bentuk sekerup berisi axons melayani organ/ bagian badan Corti dalam perjalanan ke syaraf yang tentang indera pendengar.  Suatu punggung bukit/bubungan bertulang, pelat tipis pilinan, meluas di luar modiolus dan menyediakan pen;dukungan untuk organ/ bagian badan Corti.  Suatu rongga berbentuk pipa di dalam pelat tipis pilinan berisi badan sel [itu] axons nerve.  Because yang tentang indera pendengar koleksi sel syaraf ini badan mempunyai suatu bentuk seperti bentuk sekerup yang sejajar dengan cochlear [itu] scalae, [itu] [disebut/dipanggil] pusat saraf pilinan [itu]

ORGAN/ BAGIAN BADAN CORTI
 Organ/ bagian badan Corti adalah suatu struktur rumit dengan [part;bagian] [yang] lebih dinamai dibanding sisa labirin.  Beberapa corak kunci didaftarkan di bawah.  Organ/ bagian badan Corti dimasukkan di dalam media organisasi. 
 Organ/ bagian badan Corti adalah suatu merindukan potongan jaringan/tisu yang meluas panjang media organisasi, dari dasar pembuluh dalam telinga ke puncak kulminasi nya. 
 Organ/ bagian badan Corti pada umumnya digambarkan panampang-lintang.  Bagian Jaringan/Tisu pembuluh dalam telinga [yang] secara khas berisi beberapa penampilan organ/ bagian badan Corti, [seperti;sebagai;ketika] organ/ bagian badan adalah buah persik yang diiris pada setiap putaran garis sekerup/spiral selenoid. 
 Lingkungan Cairan untuk organ/ bagian badan Corti adalah endolymph, yang mengisi media organisasi [itu].  ( Endolymph dikeluarkan oleh sel stria vascularis.) 
 Di dalam potongan jaringan/tisu [yang] kompleks yang menjadi anggota organ/ bagian badan Corti adalah sel rambut. 
 Keseluruhan istirahat kompleks pada [atas] basilar selaput

Selaput ini menghubungi akhir sel rambut yang apikal di (dalam) organ/ bagian badan Corti. 
 Akhir sel rambut yang apikal sentuh tectorial selaput [itu], a " rak" tentang selai yang didukung secara kokoh pada [atas] pelat tipis pilinan. 
 Ketika basilar selaput dipindahkan oleh memaksa ombak ( yaitu., bunyi), gerak sel rambut sehubungan dengan tectorial selaput [itu], menyebabkan stimulatory pembelokan akhir yang apikal sel rambut.
 Selaput ini menghubungi akhir sel rambut yang apikal di (dalam) organ/ bagian badan Corti. 
 Akhir sel rambut yang apikal sentuh tectorial selaput [itu], a " rak" tentang selai yang didukung secara kokoh pada [atas] pelat tipis pilinan. 
 Ketika basilar selaput dipindahkan oleh memaksa ombak ( yaitu., bunyi), gerak sel rambut sehubungan dengan tectorial selaput [itu], menyebabkan stimulatory pembelokan akhir yang apikal sel rambut.
Catatan klinis:  Suatu cochlear menanamkan dimasukkan/disisipi ke dalam genderang organisasi, [di mana/jika] [itu] berada dekat dengan organ/ bagian badan Corti dan kaleng [yang] secara palsu merangsang axons syaraf yang tentang indera pendengar. 

 Organ/ bagian badan Corti dengan sangat lebih rumit dibanding rekening/tg-jawab [yang] sederhana ini menyiratkan, dengan, di antaranya, dua kelas sel rambut [yang] beda ( luar dan bagian dalam). 

 Synapses dari sel rambut yang bagian dalam [yang] kelihatannya menyediakan kebanyakan dari informasi yang berhubungan dengan perasaan yang pergi kepada otak, [selagi/sedang] rambut yang luar sel mempunyai suatu mekanik curiga berfungsi.
 Labirin yang seperti selaput diisi dengan endolymph dan yang dikepung oleh perilymph.

 Endolymph ( biru, gambaran pada [hak/ kebenaran]) adalah suatu cairan unik, dengan tinggi K+ konsentrasi dan Na sangat rendah+ Konsentrasi.  Endolymph ini menyediakan lingkungan bersifat ion yang sesuai untuk sel rambut berfungsi.

 Endolymph dikeluarkan oleh sel stria vascularis, sepanjang media organisasi pembuluh dalam telinga

Perilymph ( Jeruk, di (dalam) gambaran pada [hak/ kebenaran]) adalah serupa ke interstitial cairan biasa.  Perilymph mengisi [ruang;spasi] labirin yang bertulang melingkupi labirin yang seperti selaput.
 Di (dalam) vestibular sistem ( melingkupi saccule, utricle, dan saluran berbentuk setengah lingkaran), perilymph [yang] hanya menyediakan suatu pen;dukungan bantalan untuk labirin yang seperti selaput.
 Di (dalam) pembuluh dalam telinga [itu], perilymph menaik organisasi vestibuli dan turun genderang organisasi menyampaikan ombak tekanan ( bunyi;serasi) ke seberang media organisasi.   Ombak Tekanan melenturkan basilar selaput [itu] dan dengan demikian merangsang sel rambut organ/ bagian badan Corti.
 Vestibular Sistem
 Tiga Saluran pipa Berbentuk setengah lingkaran
 Utricle
 Saccule
Vestibular Pembedaan Sel yang peka rangsangan
 Acceleration-Deceleration bersudut Sel yang peka rangsangan [dari;ttg] Saluran berbentuk setengah lingkaran
 Acceleration-Deceleration linier dan sel yang peka rangsangan utricle [yang] gravitasi statis dan saccule

anemia hemolitik

reaksi autoimun

kadang-kadang sistem kekebalan tubuh mengalami gangguan fungsi dan menghancurkan selnya sendiri karena keliru mengenalinya sebagai bahan asing (reaksi autoimun).
jika suatu reaksi autoimun ditujukan kepada sel darah merah, akan terjadi anemia hemolitik autoimun.

anemia hemolitik autoimun memiliki banyak penyebab, tetapi sebagian besar penyebabnya tidak diketahui (idiopatik).

diagnosis ditegakkan jika pada pemeriksaan laboratorium ditemukan antibodi (autoantibodi) dalam darah, yang terikat dan bereaksi terhadap sel darah merah sendiri.

anemia hemolitik autoimun dibedakan dalam dua jenis utama, yaitu anemia hemolitik antibodi hangat (paling sering terjadi) dan anemia hemolitik antibodi dingin.

anemia hemolitik antibodi hangat.

anemia hemolitik antibodi hangat adalah suatu keadaan dimana tubuh membentuk autoantibodi yang bereaksi terhadap sel darah merah pada suhu tubuh.

autoantibodi ini melapisi sel darah merah, yang kemudian dikenalinya sebagai benda asing dan dihancurkan oleh sel perusak dalam limpa atau kadang dalam hati dan sumsum tulang.
penyakit ini lebih sering terjadi pada wanita.

sepertiga penderita anemia jenis ini menderita suatu penyakit tertentu (misalnya limfoma, leukemia atau penyakit jaringan ikat, terutama lupus eritematosus sistemik) atau telah mendapatkan obat tertentu, terutama metildopa.

gejalanya seringkali lebih buruk daripada yang diperkirakan, mungkin karena anemianya berkembang sangat cepat.
limpa biasanya membesar, sehingga bagian perut atas sebelah kiri bisa terasa nyeri atau tidak nyaman.

pengobatan tergantung dari penyebabnya.
jika penyebabnya tidak diketahui, diberikan kortikosteroid (misalnya prednison) dosis tinggi, awalnya melalui intravena , selanjutnya per-oral (ditelan).

sekitar sepertiga penderita memberikan respon yang baik terhadap pengaobatan tersebut.
penderita lainnya mungkin memerlukan pembedahan untuk mengangkat limpa, agar limpa berhenti menghancurkan sel darah merah yang terbungkus oleh autoantibodi.

pengangkatan limpa berhasil mengendalikan anemia pada sekitar 50% penderita.
jika pengobatan ini gagal, diberikan obat yang menekan sistem kekebalan (misalnya siklosporin dan siklofosfamid).

transfusi darah dapat menyebabkan masalah pada penderita anemia hemolitik autoimun.
bank darah mengalami kesulitan dalam menemukan darah yang tidak bereaksi terhadap antibodi, dan transfusinya sendiri dapat merangsang pembentukan lebih banyak lagi antibodi.

anemia hemolitik antibodi dingin.

anemia hemolitik antibodi dingin adalah suatu keadaan dimana tubuh membentuk autoantibodi yang bereaksi terhadap sel darah merah dalam suhu ruangan atau dalam suhu yang dingin.

anemia jenis ini dapat berbentuk akut atau kronik.
bentuk yang akut sering terjadi pada penderita infeksi akut, terutama pneumonia tertentu atau mononukleosis infeksiosa.
bentuk akut biasanya tidak berlangsung lama, relatif ringan dan menghilang tanpa pengobatan.

bentuk yang kronik lebih sering terjadi pada wanita, terutama penderita rematik atau artritis yang berusia diatas 40 tahun.

bentuk yang kronik biasanya menetap sepanjang hidup penderita, tetapi sifatnya ringan dan kalaupun ada, hanya menimbulan sedikit gejala.
cuaca dingin akan meningkatkan penghancuran sel darah merah, memperburuk nyeri sendi dan bisa menyebabkan kelelahan dan sianosis (tampak kebiruan) pada tangan dan lengan.
penderita yang tinggal di daerah bercuaca dingin memiliki gejala yang lebih berat dibandingkan dengan penderita yang tinggal di iklim hangat.

diagnosis ditegakkan jika pada pemeriksaan laboratorium ditemukan antibodi pada permukaan sel darah merah yang lebih aktif pada suhu yang lebih rendah dari suhu tubuh.

tidak ada pengobatan khusus, pengobatan ditujukan untuk mengurangi gejala-gejalanya.
bentuk akut yang berhubungan dengan infeksi akan membaik degnan sendirinya dan jarang menyebabkan gejala yang serius.
menghindari cuaca dingin bisa mengendalikan bentuk yang kronik.

PERSONAL HYGIENE

PERSONAL HYGIENE

Keeping your body clean is an important part of keeping you healthy and helping you to feel good about yourself. Caring about the way you look is important to your self esteem (what you think about yourself). This topic gives you some ideas on looking your best. By the way, you don't need to wear the latest designer clothing to look good. There are other things you can do which are much more important for your "image".

Smelling clean

Have you ever walked into a classroom full of kids when all the windows are closed? PhWew!!

According to the experts young kids may sweat but they don't start having body odour (BO) until they reach puberty. That's when special sweat glands under the arms and around the genitals roar into full production pouring out sweat which smells! OK, so what is the smell that is coming from the little kids

Clothes
Even if you're not heavily into puberty style sweating, clothes can get stained, dirty and generally grubby, so you need to change them often. Underclothes are right next to your skin and collect dead skin cells, sweat and possibly other unmentionable stains. Overnight bacteria start to work on these stains so your clothes do not smell as nice on the second day of wearing.

Stay away from cigarette smoke as the smell will get into your clothes and hair.
If you have to wear a school uniform then take it off as soon as you get home and hang it up to air before you wear it the next day.
Ask your family not to smoke in the house or the car. Besides being unhealthy for them and you, the smoke clings to your clothes and makes them smelly. Of course, you wouldn't smoke either, would you?
Change underclothes often.
Shoes
You spend a lot of time on your feet and your shoes are very close to the place where a very large collection of sweat glands live - your feet!

Sweat gets into your shoes and then bacteria arrive which love the moist leather or fabric so much that they tell all their friends to come round and party! If you have one pair of shoes for school then try to get them off as soon as you get home so that they can air and dry out overnight. (As you get older somewhere outside the house is a good place!) If you have more than one pair then use them on alternate days to give them a better chance of drying out.

Keep your shoes clean by brushing, polishing or washing. They will look better, last longer and be less likely to smell.

Feet Wash your feet well at least once a day.

Dry them carefully, especially between the toes where more bacteria collect than anywhere else on your skin. If the towel is too thick to get in between your little toes, then use a dry face washer (keep it for your feet only).
If you go swimming a lot or use public showers, you need to be particularly careful to wash your feet and dry them well. It is a good idea to wear thongs on your feet too. Lots of other people walk in bare feet in these places and you can easily pick up fungal infections or other problems for your feet, such as warts! (See out topic Fungal infections for more information.)

Using 'smell nice' products
If you are a bigger kid you may want, or feel you need, to start using a deodorant or anti-perspirant under your armpits. Be aware that some people have problems with perfumes, which can be a trigger for asthma or hay fever, so don't spray them around in the washroom or change-room.
Remember: nothing smells better than clean skin. Perfumes are not a good substitute for a shower or wash. You may want to use special innersoles in your shoes, which can be taken out and washed, making the shoes smell less.

You may want to use foot powder on your feet and inside your shoes. This can help too.

Most sneakers or running shoes will survive being washed by hand or even in the washing machine
Hair The hair follicles [which the hair grows from] produce oil which keeps the hair smooth. You also have sweat glands in your scalp, and dead skin cells come off the scalp. The oil, sweat and dead cells all add together and can make the hair greasy and look dirty unless you wash it regularly.
To keep your hair clean: wash regularly with shampoo (cheap ones are often as good as very expensive ones). massage your scalp well. This will remove dead skin cells, excess oil and dirt. rinse well with clear water. conditioner is helpful if you have longer hair as it makes the hair smoother and easier to comb, but hair doesn't need to have conditioner. use a wide toothed comb for wet hair as it is easier to pull through.

Teeth
•You should brush your teeth twice a day - after breakfast and before you go to bed.
•During the day, fill your mouth with water and swish it around to get rid of anything sticking to your teeth. (See our topic Teeth to find out more.)


Dr Kim says:
"With a clean body, clean hair, clean clothes and shoes, you will feel good and your friends will be happy to be near you. Keep your fingernails and toenails short and clean too."
KEEPING CLEAN

Mum said to have a shower,
And wash my hair well too.
I've been in here for ages,
I think that that will do.
Uh, oh, the towel's dirty,
Maybe I really oughter,
Next time I have a shower,
Stand underneath the water.

BH
Some advice from Ben in Grade 6

"Personal hygiene is very important because no-one likes to be close to a person who stinks and is dirty. So, whoever you are and wherever you go remember:
Wash your hands before you eat and your feet before you sleep."
http://www.cyh.com

Hygiene is an old concept related to medicine, as well as to personal and professional care practices related to most aspects of living. In medicine and in home (domestic) and everyday life settings, hygiene practices are employed as preventative measures to reduce the incidence and spreading of disease. In the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and other products, good hygiene is a key part of quality assurance i.e. ensuring that the product complies with microbial specifications appropriate to its use. The terms cleanliness (or cleaning) and hygiene are often used interchangeably, which can cause confusion. In general, hygiene mostly means practices that prevent spread of disease-causing organisms. Since cleaning processes (e.g., hand washing) remove infectious microbes as well as dirt and soil, they are often the means to achieve hygiene. Other uses of the term appear in phrases including: body hygiene, personal hygiene, mental hygiene, dental hygiene, and occupational hygiene, used in connection with public health. The term "hygiene" is derived from Hygeia, the Greek goddess of health, cleanliness and sanitation. Hygiene is also the name of a branch of science that deals with the promotion and preservation of health, also called hygienics. Hygiene practices vary widely, and what is considered acceptable in one culture might not be acceptable in another.

Medical hygiene
Medical hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices related to the administration of medicine, and medical care, that prevents or minimizes disease and the spreading of disease.
Medical hygiene practices include:
•Isolation or quarantine of infectious persons or materials to prevent spread of infection.
•Sterilization of instruments used in surgical procedures.
•Use of protective clothing and barriers, such as masks, gowns, caps, eyewear and gloves.
•Proper bandaging and dressing of injuries.
•Safe disposal of medical waste.
•Disinfection of reusables (i.e. linen, pads, uniforms)
•Scrubbing up, hand-washing, especially in an operating room, but in more general health-care settings as well, where diseases can be transmitted[1]
Most of these practices were developed in the 19th century and were well established by the mid-20th century. Some procedures (such as disposal of medical waste) were tightened up as a result of late-20th century disease outbreaks, notably AIDS and Ebola.

Home and everyday life hygiene
Home hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices that prevent or minimize disease and the spreading of disease in home (domestic) and in everyday life settings such as social settings, public transport, the work place, public places etc.
Hygiene in home and everyday life settings plays an important part in preventing spread of infectious diseases.[2] It includes procedures used in a variety of domestic situations such as hand hygiene, respiratory hygiene, food and water hygiene, general home hygiene (hygiene of environmental sites and surfaces), care of domestic animals, and home healthcare (the care of those who are at greater risk of infection).

At present, these components of hygiene tend to be regarded as separate issues, although all are based on the same underlying microbiological principles. Preventing the spread of infectious diseases means breaking the chain of infection transmission. The simple principle is that, if the chain of infection is broken, infection cannot spread. In response to the need for effective codes of hygiene in home and everyday life settings the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has developed a risk-based approach (based on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), which has come to be known as “targeted hygiene”. Targeted hygiene is based on identifying the routes of spread of pathogens in the home, and applying hygiene procedures at critical points at appropriate times to break the chain of infection.

The main sources of infection in the home[3] are people (who are carriers or are infected), foods (particularly raw foods) and water, and domestic animals (in western countries more than 50% of homes have one or more pets). Additionally, sites that accumulate stagnant water—such as sinks, toilets, waste pipes, cleaning tools, face cloths—readily support microbial growth, and can become secondary reservoirs of infection, though species are mostly those that threaten “at risk” groups. Germs (potentially infectious bacteria, viruses etc.) are constantly shed from these sources via mucous, faeces, vomit, skin scales, etc. Thus, when circumstances combine, people become exposed, either directly or via food or water, and can develop an infection. The main “highways” for spread of germs[3] in the home are the hands, hand and food contact surfaces, and cleaning cloths and utensils. Germs can also spread via clothing and household linens such as towels. Utilities such as toilets and wash basins, for example, were invented for dealing safely with human waste, but still have risks associated with them, which may become critical at certain times, e.g., when someone has sickness or diarrhea. Safe disposal of human waste is a fundamental need; poor sanitation is a primary cause of diarrhoeal disease in low income communities. Respiratory viruses and fungal spores are also spread via the air.

Good home hygiene means targeting hygiene procedures at critical points, at appropriate times, to break the chain of infection i.e. to eliminate germs before they can spread further.[3] Because the “infectious dose” for some pathogens can be very small (10-100 viable units, or even less for some viruses), and infection can result from direct transfer from surfaces via hands or food to the mouth, nasal mucosa or the eye, 'hygienic cleaning' procedures should be sufficient to eliminate pathogens from critical surfaces. Hygienic cleaning can be done by:
•Mechanical removal (i.e. cleaning) using a soap or detergent. To be effective as a hygiene measure, this process must be followed by thorough rinsing under running water to remove germs from the surface.
•Using a process or product that inactivates the pathogens in situ. Germ kill is achieved using a “micro-biocidal” product i.e. a disinfectant or antibacterial product or waterless hand sanitizer, or by application of heat.
•In some cases combined germ removal with kill is used, e.g. laundering of clothing and household linens such as towels and bedlinen.

Hand Hygiene
Defined as hand washing or washing hands with soap and water or using a waterless hand sanitizer.
Hand hygiene is central to preventing spread of infectious diseases in home and everyday life settings.[4]

In situations where hand washing with soap is not an option (e.g. when in a public place with no access to wash facilities), a waterless hand sanitizer such as an alcohol hand gel can be used. They can also be used in addition to hand washing, to minimise risks when caring for “at risk” groups. To be effective, alcohol hand gels should contain not less than 60%v/v alcohol. Hand sanitizers are non-options in most developing country settings; in situations where availability of water is a problem, there are appropriate solutions such as tippy-taps, which use much less water and are very low-cost to make, with local materials. In low income communities mud or ash is sometimes used as an alternative to soap.

Respiratory Hygiene
Correct respiratory and hand hygiene when coughing and sneezing reduces the spread of germs particularly during the cold and flu season.[2]
•Carry tissues and use them to catch coughs and sneezes
•Dispose of tissues as soon as possible
•Clean your hands by hand washing or using an alcohol hand sanitizer.
Food Hygiene at Home
Food hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices that prevent food poisoning . The five key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO, are:
1.Prevent contaminating food with pathogens spreading from people, pets, and pests.
2.Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods.
3.Cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature to kill pathogens.
4.Store food at the proper temperature.
5.Use safe water and raw materials

Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage
Household water treatment and safe storage are practices which can be used by the family at home and in the community to ensure that drinking water is safe for consumption.

Drinking water quality remains a significant problem, not only in developing countries but also in developed countries; even in the European region it is estimated that 120 million people do not have access to safe drinking water. Point-of-use water quality interventions can reduce diarrhoeal disease in communities where water quality is poor, or in emergency situations where there is a breakdown in water supply. Since water can become contaminated during storage at home (e.g. by contact with contaminated hands or using dirty storage vessels), safe storage of water in the home is also important.

Methods for treatment of drinking water include:
1.Chemical disinfection using chlorine or iodine
2.Boiling
3.Filtration using ceramic filters
4.Solar disinfection - Solar disinfection is an effective method, especially when no chemical disinfectants are available.
5.UV irradiation - community or household UV systems may be batch or flow-though. The lamps can be suspended above the water channel or submerged in the water flow.
6.Combined flocculation/disinfection systems – available as sachets of powder which act by coagulating and flocculating sediments in water followed by release of chlorine.
7.Multibarrier methods – Some systems use two or more of the above treatments in combination or in succession to optimize efficacy.

Hygiene in the Kitchen, Bathroom and Toilet
Routine cleaning of “contact” (hand, food and drinking water) sites and surfaces (such as toilet seats and flush handles, door and tap handles, work surfaces, bath and basin surfaces) in the kitchen, bathroom and toilet reduces the risk of spread of germs. The infection risk from the toilet itself is not high, provided it is properly maintained, although some splashing and aerosol formation can occur during flushing, particularly where someone in the family has diarrhoea. Germs can survive in the scum or scale left behind on baths and wash basins after washing and bathing.
Water left stagnant in the pipes of showers can be contaminated with germs that become airborne when the shower is turned on. If a shower has not been used for some time, it should be left to run at a hot temperature for a few minutes before use.

Thorough cleaning is important in preventing the spread of fungal infections.Moulds can live on wall and floor tiles and on shower curtains. Mould can be responsible for infections, cause allergic responses, deteriorate/damage surfaces and cause unpleasant odours. Primary sites of fungal growth are inanimate surfaces, including carpets and soft furnishings.Air-borne fungi are usually associated with damp conditions, poor ventilation or closed air systems.

Cleaning of toilets and hand wash facilities is important to prevent odours and make them socially acceptable. Social acceptability is an important part of encouraging people to use toilets and wash their hands, particularly in low income communities.

Laundry Hygiene
Laundry hygiene pertains to the practices that prevent or minimize disease and the spreading of disease via soiled clothing and household linens such as towels.Items that are most likely to be contaminated with pathogens are those which come into direct contact with the body e.g. underwear, personal towels, facecloths, nappies. Micro-organisms can also be transferred between contaminated and uncontaminated items of clothing and linen during laundering. Of concern are the new “community” strains of MRSA.Experience in the USA suggests that these strains are transmissible within families, but also in community settings such as prisons, schools and sport teams. Skin-to-skin contact (including unabraided skin) and indirect contact with contaminated objects such as towels, sheets and sports equipment seem to represent the mode of transmission.

Two processes are considered suitable for hygienic cleaning of clothing and linen:
•Washing or laundering at 60°C or above
•Washing or laundering at 30-40°C using a bleach-based product: This produces decontamination of fabrics by a combination of physical removal and chemical inactivation. However, some types of fungi and viruses that are harder to inactivate, may not be removed.
Washing at temperatures of 40°C or below with a non-bleach product is considered to carry a risk of inadequate decontamination.

Medical Hygiene at Home
Medical hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices that prevents or minimizes disease and the spreading of disease in relation to administering medical care to those who are infected or who are more “at risk” of infection in the home. Across the world, governments are increasingly under pressure to fund the level of healthcare that people expect. Care of increasing numbers of patients in the community, including at home is one answer, but can be fatally undermined by inadequate infection control in the home. Increasingly, all of these “at-risk” groups are cared for at home by a carer who may be a household member who thus requires a good knowledge of hygiene. People with reduced immunity to infection, who are looked after at home, make up an increasing proportion of the population (currently up to 20%). The largest proportion are the elderly who have co-morbidities, which reduce their immunity to infection. It also includes the very young, patients discharged from hospital, taking immuno-suppressive drugs or using invasive systems, etc. For patients discharged from hospital, or being treated at home special “medical hygiene” (see above) procedures may need to be performed for them e.g. catheter or dressing replacement, which puts them at higher risk of infection.

Antiseptics may be applied to cuts, wounds abrasions of the skin to prevent the entry of harmful bacteria which can cause sepsis.
Day-to-day hygiene practices, other than special medical hygiene procedures are no different for those at increased risk of infection than for other family members. The difference is that, if hygiene practices are not correctly carried out, the risk of infection is much greater.

Home Hygiene in low income communities
In the developing world, for decades, universal access to water and sanitation has been seen as the essential step in reducing the preventable ID burden, but it is now clear that this is best achieved by programmes that integrate hygiene promotion with improvements in water quality and availability, and sanitation. About 2 million people die every year due to diarrhoeal diseases, most of them are children less than 5 years of age. The most affected are the populations in developing countries, living in extreme conditions of poverty, normally peri-urban dwellers or rural inhabitants. Providing access to sufficient quantities of safe water, the provision of facilities for a sanitary disposal of excreta, and introducing sound hygiene behaviours are of capital importance to reduce the burden of disease caused by these risk factors.

Research shows that, if widely practiced, hand washing with soap could reduce diarrhoea by almost fifty percent and respiratory infections by nearly twenty-five percent. Hand washing with soap also reduces the incidence of skin diseases, eye infections like trachoma and intestinal worms, especially ascariasis and trichuriasis.

Other hygiene practices such as safe disposal of waste, surface hygiene, care of domestic animals are also important in low income communities in order to break the chain of infection transmission.

Disinfectants and antibacterials in home hygiene
Chemical disinfectants are products that kill germs (harmful bacteria, viruses and fungi). If the product is a disinfectant, the label on the product should say “disinfectant” and/or “kills” germs or bacteria etc. Some commercial products, e.g. bleaches, even though they are technically disinfectants, say that they “kill germs”, but are not actually labelled as “disinfectants”. Not all disinfectants kill all types of germs. All disinfectants kill bacteria (called bactericidal). Some will also kill fungi (fungicidal), bacterial spores (sporicidal) and/or viruses (virucidal).

An antibacterial product is a product that acts against bacteria in some unspecified way. Some products labelled “antibacterial” will kill bacteria whilst others may contain a concentration of active ingredient which will only prevent them multiplying. It is therefore important to check whether the product label states that it “kills” bacteria” An antibacterial is not necessarily anti-fungal or anti-viral unless this is stated on the label.

The term sanitizer has been used to define substances which both clean and disinfect. More recently this term has been applied to alcohol-based products which are used to disinfect the hands (alcohol hand sanitizers). Alcohol hand sanitizers however are not considered to be effective on soiled hands.

The term biocide is a broad term for a substance that kills, inactivates or otherwise controls living organisms. It includes antiseptics and disinfectants, which combat micro-organisms, and also includes pesticides.

Body Hygiene
Body hygiene pertains to hygiene practices performed by an individual to care for one's bodily health and well being, through cleanliness. Motivations for personal hygiene practice include reduction of personal illness, healing from personal illness, optimal health and sense of well being, social acceptance and prevention of spread of illness to others.

Personal hygiene practices include: seeing a doctor, seeing a dentist, regular washing/bathing, and healthy eating. Personal grooming extends personal hygiene as it pertains to the maintenance of a good personal and public appearance, which need not necessarily be hygienic.

Body hygiene is achieved by using personal body hygiene products including: soap, hair shampoo, toothbrushes, tooth paste, cotton swabs, antiperspirant, facial tissue, mouthwash, nail files, skin cleansers, toilet paper, and other such products.

Excessive Body Hygiene
The benefits of body hygiene can be diminished by the risks of excessive body hygiene, which is hypothesized to cause allergic disease and bodily irritation.

Excessive Body Hygiene and Allergies
The hygiene hypothesis was first formulated in 1989 by Strachan who observed that there was an inverse relationship between family size and development of atopic allergic disorders – the more children in a family, the less likely they were to develop these allergies. From this, he hypothesised that lack of exposure to “infections” in early childhood transmitted by contact with older siblings could be a cause of the rapid rise in atopic disorders over the last thirty to forty years. Strachan further proposed that the reason why this exposure no longer occurs is, not only because of the trend towards smaller families, but also “improved household amenities and higher standards of personal cleanliness”.

Although there is substantial evidence that some microbial exposures in early childhood can in some way protect against allergies, there is no evidence that we need exposure to harmful microbes (infection) or that we need to suffer a clinical infection. Nor is there evidence that hygiene measures such as hand washing, food hygiene etc. are linked to increased susceptibility to atopic disease. If this is the case, there is no conflict between the goals of preventing infection and minimising allergies. A consensus is now developing among experts that the answer lies in more fundamental changes in lifestyle etc. that have led to decreased exposure to certain microbial or other species, such as helminths, that are important for development of immuno-regulatory mechanisms. There is still much uncertainty as to which lifestyle factors are involved.

Although media coverage of the hygiene hypothesis has declined, a strong ‘collective mindset’ has become established that dirt is ‘healthy’ and hygiene somehow ‘unnatural’. This has caused concern among health professionals that everyday life hygiene behaviours, which are the foundation of public health, are being undermined. In response to the need for effective hygiene in home and everyday life settings, the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has developed a “risk-based” or targeted approach to home hygiene which seeks to ensure that hygiene measures are focussed on the places, and at the times which are most critical for infection transmission. Whilst targeted hygiene was originally developed as an effective approach to hygiene practice, it also seeks, as far as possible, to sustain “normal” levels of exposure to the microbial flora of our environment to the extent that is important to build a balanced immune system.

Excessive Body Hygiene Of External Ear Canals
Excessive body hygiene of the ear canals can result in infection or irritation. The ear canals require less body hygiene care than other parts of the body, because they are sensitive, and the body system adequately cares for these parts. Attempts to clean the ear canals through the removal of earwax can actually reduce ear canal cleanliness by pushing debris and foreign material into the ear that the natural movement of ear wax out of the ear would have removed.

Excessive Body Hygiene of Skin
Excessive body hygiene of the skin can result in skin irritation. The skin has a natural layer of oil, which promotes elasticity, and protects the skin from drying. When washing, unless using aqueous creams with compensatory mechanisms, this layer is removed leaving the skin unprotected.

Excessive application of soaps, creams, and ointments can also adversely affect certain of the natural processes of the skin. For examples, soaps and ointments can deplete the skin of natural protective oils and fat-soluble content such as cholecalciferol (vitamin D3), and external substances can be absorbed, to disturb natural hormonal balances.

Culinary (food) Hygiene
Culinary hygiene pertains to the practices related to food management and cooking to prevent food contamination, prevent food poisoning and minimize the transmission of disease to other foods, humans or animals. Culinary hygiene practices specify safe ways to handle, store, prepare, serve and eat food.


Culinary practices include:
•Cleaning and disinfection of food-preparation areas and equipment (for example using designated cutting boards for preparing raw meats and vegetables). Cleaning may involve use of chlorine bleach, ethanol, ultraviolet light, etc. for disinfection.
•Careful avoidance of meats contaminated by trichina worms, salmonella, and other pathogens; or thorough cooking of questionable meats.
•Extreme care in preparing raw foods, such as sushi and sashimi.
•Institutional dish sanitizing by washing with soap and clean water.
•Washing of hands thoroughly before touching any food.
•Washing of hands after touching uncooked food when preparing meals.
•Not using the same utensils to prepare different foods.
•Not sharing cutlery when eating.
•Not licking fingers or hands while or after eating.
•Not reusing serving utensils that have been licked.
•Proper storage of food so as to prevent contamination by vermin.
•Refrigeration of foods (and avoidance of specific foods in environments where refrigeration is or was not feasible).
•Labeling food to indicate when it was produced (or, as food manufacturers prefer, to indicate its "best before" date).
•Proper disposal of uneaten food and packaging.

Personal Service Hygiene
Personal service hygiene pertains to the practices related to the care and use of instruments used in the administration of personal care services to people:
Personal hygiene practices include:
•Sterilization of instruments used by service providers including hairdressers, aestheticians, and other service providers.
•Sterilization by [autoclave] of instruments used in body piercing and tattoo marking.
•Cleaning hands.

History Of Hygienic Practices
Elaborate codes of hygiene can be found in several Hindu texts, such as the Manusmriti and the Vishnu Purana.[35] Bathing is one of the five Nitya karmas (daily duties) in Hinduism, and not performing it leads to sin, according to some scriptures. These codes were based on the notion of ritual purity and were not informed by an understanding of the causes of diseases and their means of transmission. However, some of the ritual-purity codes did improve hygiene, from an epidemiological point of view, perhaps by accident, or because certain practices acquired ritual status on account of an empirical correlation with good health.
Regular bathing was a hallmark of Roman civilization.[36] Elaborate baths were constructed in urban areas to serve the public, who typically demanded the infrastructure to maintain personal cleanliness. The complexes usually consisted of large, swimming pool-like baths, smaller cold and hot pools, saunas, and spa-like facilities where individuals could be depilated, oiled, and massaged. Water was constantly changed by an aqueduct-fed flow. Bathing outside of urban centers involved smaller, less elaborate bathing facilities, or simply the use of clean bodies of water. Roman cities also had large sewers, such as Rome's Cloaca Maxima, into which public and private latrines drained. Romans didn't have demand-flush toilets but did have some toilets with a continuous flow of water under them. (Similar toilets are seen in Acre Prison in the film Exodus.)

Until the late 19th Century, only the elite in Western cities typically possessed indoor facilities for relieving bodily functions. The poorer majority used communal facilities built above cesspools in backyards and courtyards. This changed after Dr. John Snow discovered that cholera was transmitted by the fecal contamination of water. Though it took decades for his findings to gain wide acceptance, governments and sanitary reformers were eventually convinced of the health benefits of using sewers to keep human waste from contaminating water. This encouraged the widespread adoption of both the flush toilet and the moral imperative that bathrooms should be indoors and as private as possible.[37]

Islamic hygienical jurisprudence
Main article: Islamic hygienical jurisprudence
Further information: Islamic cleanliness, Wudu, Ghusl, Islamic dietary laws, and Islamic toilet etiquette

Since the 7th century, Islam has always placed a strong emphasis on hygiene. Other than the need to be ritually clean in time for the daily prayer (Arabic: Salat) through Wudu and Ghusl, there are a large number of other hygiene-related rules governing the lives of Muslims. Other issues include the Islamic dietary laws. In general, the Qur'an advises Muslims to uphold high standards of physical hygiene and to be ritually clean whenever possible.

Hygiene in Ancient Europe
Contrary to popular belief[38] and although the Early Christian leaders condemned bathing as unspiritual,[39] bathing and sanitation were not lost in Europe with the collapse of the Roman Empire.[40][41] Soapmaking first became an established trade during the so-called "Dark Ages". The Romans used scented oils (mostly from Egypt), among other alternatives.

Bathing did not fall out of fashion in Europe until shortly after the Renaissance, replaced by the heavy use of sweat-bathing and perfume, as it was thought in Europe that water could carry disease into the body through the skin. (Water, in fact, does carry disease, but more often if it is drunk than if one bathes in it; and water only carries disease if it is contaminated by pathogens.) Medieval church authorities believed that public bathing created an environment open to immorality and disease. Roman Catholic Church officials even banned public bathing in an unsuccessful effort to halt syphilis epidemics from sweeping Europe.[42] Modern sanitation was not widely adopted until the 19th and 20th centuries. According to medieval historian Lynn Thorndike, people in Medieval Europe probably bathed more than people did in the 19th century.[43]

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Personal hygiene is the first step to good grooming and good health. Elementary cleanliness is common knowledge. Neglect causes problems that you may not even be aware of. Many people with bad breath are blissfully unaware of it. Some problems may not be your fault at all, but improving standards of hygiene will control these conditions. Dandruff is a case in point. More often than you know, good looks are the result of careful and continuous grooming.
Every external part of the body demands a basic amount of attention on a regular basis. Here are some grooming routines and some complaints associated with neglect.
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Personal hygiene may be described as the principle of maintaining cleanliness and grooming of the external body. It is in general looking after yourself.
Personal hygiene can be controlled by sustaining high standards of personal care and humans have been aware of the importance of hygiene for thousands of years. The ancient Greeks spent many hours in the bath, using fragrances and make-up in an effort to beautify themselves and be presentable to others.
Personal hygiene products are a billion dollar business in the commercial market, with many high profile celebrities endorsing products that aim to keep us looking our best. In fact, hygiene is actually a scientific study.
Maintaining a high level of personal hygiene will help to increase self-esteem and confidence whilst minimising the chances of developing imperfections.
Poor Personal Hygiene
Failure to keep up a standard of hygiene can have many implications. Not only is there an increased risk of getting an infection or illness, but there are many social and psychological aspects that can be affected.
Poor personal hygiene, in relation to preventing the spread of disease is paramount in preventing epidemic or even pandemic outbreaks. To engage in some very basic measures could help prevent many coughs and colds from being passed from person to person.
Social aspects can be affected, as many people would rather alienate themselves from someone who has bad personal hygiene than to tell them how they could improve. Bullies may use bad personal hygiene as a way of abusing their victims, using social embarrassment as a weapon.
Poor personal hygiene can have significant implications on the success of job applications or the chance of promotion; no company wants to be represented by someone who does not appear to be able to look after themselves.
Many sufferers of mental illnesses like dementia or depression may need extra support and encouragement with their personal hygiene. Their carers should make sure that they have everything they need and assist them when permitted and when possible.
Children and Personal Hygiene
Children should be taught the importance of hygiene as early as possible, with oral care, washing, toilet hygiene and hair care being taught as part of everyday routines. Singing songs or making a game out of the activities will help to ensure that they enjoy looking after themselves. Bath time can provide an ideal opportunity for spending quality time together, and for teaching about the importance of cleanliness. Toys such as dolls can be used to educate children in correct bathing techniques.
Food Hygiene
Probably the most important aspect of all, food hygiene is very closely associated with personal hygiene. Poor personal cleansing can have a very significant effect on the start and spread of many illnesses through contact with nutritional consumables, some that can be potentially lethal.
Aspects of Personal Hygiene
There are many contributory factors that make up personal hygiene with the main ones being washing, oral care, hair care, nail care, wound care, cleansing of personal utensils and preventing infection.
Personal hygiene is as it says, personal. Everybody has their own habits and standards that they have been taught or that they have learnt from others. It is essentially the promotion and continuance of good health.
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Hygiene is more than just being clean. It is defined as the many practices that help people be and stay healthy. Practicing good personal hygiene is smart for two reasons. First, it helps prevent people from catching and spreading illness and disease. Second, it helps people feel good about themselves and their bodies. In American society, cleanliness is an important issue; poor hygiene is seen as unacceptable and unhealthy.
Good hygiene includes thoroughly and regularly washing one's body (especially hands), washing one's hair, brushing and flossing teeth, and caring for gums. These grooming habits will reduce the threat of bacteria that constantly reside on the body. While a certain amount of bacteria are harmless, and even beneficial, to the body, a build-up of bacteria can harm a person's health.
As children grow older, their bodies go through a number of changes. While good hygiene is important for everyone at any age, it can require greater care at the onset of puberty. When puberty arrives (usually between the ages of eight and sixteen), it means the body is becoming sexually mature. Hormones, certain chemicals made by one's body, produce both physical and emotional changes. It is the physical changes that require greater attention when it comes to hygiene. For a young girl or boy, this means taking more time and care cleaning one's body, especially the sexual organs, dealing with acne, bad breath, and a stronger body odor, as well as doing more to prevent cavities and gum disease.
This chapter will focus on all aspects of hygiene and the ways in which a person should care for the skin, hair, nails, eyes, ears, genitals, teeth, and gums.


Read more: Personal Care and Hygiene - body, children, skin, hands, disease, people, physical, health http://www.faqs.org/health/Healthy-Living-V1/Personal-Care-and-Hygiene.html#ixzz1UMjiy3Th
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Personal hygiene is the basic concept of cleaning, grooming and caring for our bodies. While it is an important part of our daily lives at home, personal hygiene isnt just about combed shiny hair and brushed teeth; its important for worker health and safety in the workplace. Workers who pay attention to personal hygiene can prevent the spread of germs and disease, reduce their exposures to chemicals and contaminants, and avoid developing skin allergies, skin conditions, and chemical sensitivities.
The first principle of good hygiene is to avoid an exposure by forming a barrier over the skin with personal protective equipment (PPE) such as gloves, coveralls, and boots. It is important to check the PPE often for excessive contamination, wear, tears, cuts, or pinholes. Workers should clean, decontaminate or replace protective equipment frequently to make sure it doesnt collect or absorb irritants. If protective equipment becomes too soiled during the job, the worker should stop and replace it with clean equipment.
Basic hand washing and skin care can prevent work exposures and disease. Good washing and scrubbing with water and soap helps to remove germs, contaminants, and chemicals. It can also prevent exposure by ingestion and cross-contamination of the surfaces and objects we touch.
Workers should periodically wash their hands on the during the day. In some jobs, regular hand washing is required by law. Hand washing is important before and after using the restroom and before or after certain activities. Workers should wash their hands before, during, and after preparing food and before they take breaks at work to eat, drink or smoke. To control the spread of germs that can cause the flu or common cold, workers should wash their hands whenever they cough, sneeze, or blow their noses, and whenever they are around someone that is sick.
Hand washing involves more than a quick rinse under a faucet. To wash hands properly, workers should first wet them under the faucet and then use liquid or bar soap. Hands should be held out of the water until all skin surfaces are scrubbed and lathered for at least twenty seconds. Workers can then rinse with clean water and dry their hands with a disposable towel. To wash hands with a hand sanitizer, workers should apply the appropriate amount of sanitizer into the palm of the hand, and then rub hands together until they are dry, being careful to cover all surfaces of the hands. For some job activities, hand sanitizers are not an acceptable means of hand cleaning. Showering and face-washing after work is also a good idea. Proper personal hygiene and hand protection can help keep workers productive and on the job. Be safely clean with good hygiene.
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